Adverbs of Manner (-ce / -ca)

The suffix -ce / -ca / -çe / -ça forms manner adverbs from nouns and adjectives. These adverbs describe the style, mode, or quality of an action. The forms are invariable and function within the predicate domain.

1. Function

Manner adverbs specify how an action is performed.
The suffix produces adverbial forms that modify verbal predicates independently of tense, aspect, or person.

2. Allomorphy

The suffix exhibits four surface allomorphs determined by two phonological processes:

(1) vowel harmony and
(2) consonant assimilation.

2.1. Vowel Harmony (a/e)

The vowel of the suffix harmonizes with the final vowel of the base:

Back vowels (a, ı, o, u) → -a
Front vowels (e, i, ö, ü) → -e

This selection produces the a/e component of the suffix.

Examples:
• güzel → güzelce
• açık → açıkça
• gizli → gizlice

2.2. Consonant Assimilation (c/ç)

The consonant of the suffix surfaces as c or ç, depending on the final segment of the base.

2.2.1. Base Ending in a Vowel → c

Examples:
• gizli → gizlice
• doğru → doğruca
• sessiz → sessizce

2.2.2. Base Ending in a Voiced Consonant → c

Voiced consonants:
b, c, d, g, ğ, j, l, m, n, r, v, y, z

Examples:
• güzel → güzelce
• zarif → zarifçe
• değer → değerce (attested, limited)

2.2.3. Base Ending in an Unvoiced Consonant → ç

Unvoiced consonants:
f, s, t, k, ç, ş, h, p
(“fıstıkçı şahap”)

Examples:
• sert → sertçe
• açık → açıkça
• yüksek → yüksekçe
• genç → genççe
• dost → dostça
• yavaş → yavaşça

3. Surface Behavior

The suffix attaches directly to the base.

Stem-internal vowels or consonants do not undergo alternation.

Many derived forms are lexicalized in standard use.

Lexicalized examples:
• açıkça
• kısaca
• doğruca
• gizlice
• sessizce

4. Syntactic Position

The neutral position of a manner adverb is immediately before the verb phrase.

Pattern:
Subject + Manner Adverb + Verb Phrase

Examples:
• Yavaşça konuştu.
• Açıkça söyledi.

Fronting is possible for emphasis.

5. Lexicalized Forms

Common lexicalized manner adverbs include:

• yavaşça (slowly, gently)
• açıkça (clearly)
• kısaca (briefly)
• doğruca (directly, straight)
• gizlice (secretly)
• sessizce (silently)
• dostça (in a friendly way)
• güzelce (nicely, thoroughly)

These forms function as fixed items in contemporary Turkish.

6. Distribution and Interpretation

The suffix forms invariable adverbs that:

• modify the predicate
• do not inflect
• operate across all tense–aspect systems
• derive interpretive nuance from the lexical base